The use of hypnosis in sports counseling and athletic training is modestly represented in the literature. However, almost all of the existing literature on sports hypnosis focuses on hypnosis for performance enhancement or aspects related to performance enhancement, such as concentration and stress reduction (Braybrooke, 1988; Collins, Doherty, Talbot, 1993; Heyman, 1987; Krenz, 1984; Liggett, 2000; Morgan, 1993; Robazza Bortoli, 1995; Stanton, 1994; Tafti, Besset, Billiard, 1992; Wojcikiewicz Orlick, 1987). This article will examine themes reflected in the literature on sports hypnosis and will explore uses of Heart-Centered Hypnotherapy (HCH) with athletes as demonstrated through case examples. Several authors provide general overviews of the uses of hypnosis in sports (Liggett, 2000; Morgan, 1993; Taylor, Horevitz, Balague, 1993). However, the majority of available literature on sports hypnosis focuses on using hypnosis for performance enhancement. In addition, many of the articles that do not focus on performance enhancement per se, describe characteristics which have a direct effect on performance. For example, this literature review found that the second most common use for hypnosis in sports was anxiety or stress reduction (Howard Reardon, 1986; Krenz, 1984; Naruse, 1965; Onestak, 1991; Wojcikiewicz Orlick, 1987). Another common theme in sports hypnosis literature (also connected to performance enhancement) is the relationship of hypnosis to mental and psychological training (Krenz, 1984; Onestak, 1991). In addition, hypnosis has been used for other aspects of performance enhancement, including strength and physical and emotional control (Diamante Baker, 1991; Howard Reardon, 1986; Johnson Kramer, 1961; Liggett Hamada, 1993; Scott, 1984), concentration (Collins, Doherty, Talbot, 1993; Schreiber, 1991), self-concept (Howard Reardon, 1986), motivation (Baybrooke, 1988; Darden, 1972; Pearson, 1983), and mood enhancement (Oakley, Norell, Cripps, 1995). Hypnosis has also been used to achieve optimal levels of performance arousal, which are necessary for the individual to achieve peak performance (Garver, 1977; Liggett, 2000; McMaster, 1993). Sports hypnosis has been further investigated in the literature in order to better understand the relationships among trance states, performance, pain, and healing. Researchers have examined occurrences of trance states in athletes and the effects of these states on performance and health (Callen, 1983; Cancio, 1991; Grove Lewis, 1996; Masters, 1992). Finally, in sports medicine, hypnosis has been utilized to decrease pain and increase healing (Ballinger, 1987; Kroger, 1988). Although performance is a primary concern for athletes, a variety of other issues exist which affect the mental health and functioning of athletes. Various developmental issues impact athletes, including identity issues, personal competence, and career planning (Jordan Denson, 1990; Pearson Petipas, 1990; Wooten, 1994). Athletes must also confront identity issues related to their level of participation and achievement in sports (Greendorfor Blinde, 1985; Ogilivie Howe, 1982; Svoboda Vanek, 1982). For athletes who focus solely on sports activities, self-esteem, identity, and social affiliation may be entirely dependent upon their athletic involvement (Gordett, 1985; Pearson Petipas, 1990). Once participation in athletics ceases (either voluntarily or involuntarily), the individual may experience crises related to identity, self-efficacy, and helplessness (Kleiber Brock, 1992). Athletes transitioning out of sports often must deal with rebuilding identity in a non-athletic context, constructing career-life plans, and developing personal competencies (Wooten Hinkle, 1991). These examples demonstrate the broad spectrum of developmental and identity issues that exist in the world of the athlete. However, the use of hypnosis in dealing with athletes developmental and identity issues has been conspicuously absent from the existing literature. Almost all descriptions of hypnosis in sports counseling are fundamentally connected to performance enhancement.
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